In vitro simulated saliva, gastric, and intestinal digestion followed by faecal fermentation reveals a potential modulatory activity of Epimedium on human gut microbiota.

Herba Epimedii, known for its rich array of bioactive ingredients and widespread use in ethnopharmacological practices, still lacks a comprehensive understanding of its gastrointestinal biotransformation. In this study, we qualitatively explored the dynamic changes in Epimedium sagittatum components during in vitro simulated digestions, with a quantitative focus on its five major flavonoids. Notably, significant metabolism of E. sagittatum constituents occurred in the simulated small intestinal fluid and colonic fermentation stages, yielding various low molecular weight metabolites. Flavonoids like kaempferol glycosides were fully metabolized in the simulated intestinal fluid, while hyperoside digestion occurred during simulated colon digestion. Colonic fermentation led to the production of two known bioactive isoflavones, genistein, and daidzein. The content and bioaccessibility of the five major epimedium flavonoids-icariin, epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C, and baohuoside I-significantly increased after intestinal digestion. During colon fermentation, these components gradually decreased but remained incompletely metabolized after 72 h. Faecal samples after E. sagittatum fermentation exhibited shift towards dominance by Lactobacillus (Firmicutes), Bifidobacterium (Actinobacteria), Streptococcus (Firmicutes), and Dialister (Firmicutes). These findings enhance our comprehension of diverse stages of Herba Epimedii constituents in the gut, suggesting that the primary constituents become bioaccessible in the colon, where new bioactive compounds may emerge.

Antioxidant Therapy Against Trypanosome Infections: A Review Update.

Trypanosomiasis is a serious parasitic disease that affects humans and animals resulting in heavy health and economic burdens. Disturbance of redox equilibrium represents a classical challenge for both the host and the parasite during infections with either extracellular African or intracellular American trypanosomes species. This is in spite of existing detoxification mechanisms in both the host and the parasite for maintaining oxidative balance. However, oxidative stress still plays vital roles in the induction of numerous host-associated pathological damages such as anemia, hepatic and renal damages as well as cardiomyopathy while on the other hand, drugs that specifically induce oxidative stress to the parasite have been effective. Therefore, antioxidants have been deemed to play a role in modulating trypanosome infections. This review provides a current update on most of the studies conducted on the potential use of antioxidants as therapeutic agents against trypanosomes. The most frequently studied plant-derived phenolic antioxidants are resveratrol, cucurmin, gallic acid and quercetin while other antioxidants such as vitamins (A, C, E) and trace elements (selenium and iron) have been investigated. Some of the investigations monitored the direct trypanocidal or trypanostatic effects of the antioxidants while others studied the potentials of the antioxidants as adjuncts to trypanocidal drugs. So far, none of these approaches has sufficient data to allow a definite statement on the actual therapeutic potential of antioxidants in the treatment of clinical trypanosomiasis. Therefore, suggestions are made on the most therapeutically and clinically relevant role of antioxidants in trypanosome infections.